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J C Baran: More background: A Critical Review of the International Zen Association A former member of Deshimaru's International Zen Association writes a very critical review of Deshimaru's practices.
Dr Sandra Bell: Scandals in Emerging Western Buddhism Bell briefly outlines two well-known scandals that have hit two Buddhist centers — the San Francisco Zen Center and Chogyam Trungpa's Vajradhatu center. from Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia
Jason C. Bivins: "Beautiful Women Dig Graves": Richard Baker-roshi, Imported Buddhism, and the Transmission of Ethics
at the San Francisco Zen Center Bivins re-visited the well-documented case of Richard Baker-roshi's misbehaviour at the San Francisco Zen Center and proffers the theory that American Zen has not adopted Zen ethics within its practice. from Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation, Vol. 17, Issue 1
William Bodiford: Zen and the Art of Religious Prejudice: Efforts to Reform a Tradition of Social Discrimination Since the so-called Machida affair, the Sõtõ Zen school has become embroiled in controversies over traditional institutional practices that foster prejudicial attitudes and social discrimination. An academic look at a Soto controversy. from the Japanese Journal of Religious Studies
John H. Crook: The Place of Chan in Post-Modern Europe. Professor Crook takes a close and critical look at D.T. Suzuki and how Zen is being taught in the West. Also has a nice simple explanation of shi and li, the meaning of emptiness and other basic Zen concepts. Crook is a student of Master Sheng-yen. Recommended reading. from Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal
Dharmachāri Nāgapriya: Poisoned Pen Letters? D.T. Suzuki's Communication of Zen to the West; a scathing look at Suzuki's Zen teachings. Nāgapriya sees Suzuki's teachings as "both highly sectarian and fatally flawed". Suzuki's reputation has been under considerable attack in the past decade or so. You'll find other articles on this page re-evaluating Suzuki's contribution to Zen Buddhism. original source: Western Buddhist Review, Vol 5
James Ishmael Ford:
Holding the Lotus to the Rock: Reflections on the future of the Zen Sangha in the West An outline of Western Zen and where it may be heading.
A Note On Dharma Transmission And The Institutions Of Zen: Although Zen transmission sometimes brings problems, Ford argues that it is essential to know where your teacher came from and who authorized that person to teach. Also, gives suggestions on what to look for when chosing a teacher. original source
Nelson Foster: one of the founders of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship asks whether Buddhists can save all beings in his essay: How Shall We Save the World? David R. Loy responds.
Sueki Fumihiko: Chinese Buddhism and the Anti-Japan War While authors such as Brian Victoria have focussed on the actions of Japanese Zen leaders during the war, Fumihiko looks at two Chinese Buddhist leaders, Taixu and Leguan, to see how they viewed the Japanese imperialists and Japanese Buddhism. from Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37/1: 9–20
Peter N Gregory: Is Critical Buddhism Really Critical? While Gregory sees value in Matsumoto and Hakamaya's critique of thathagata-garbha and hongaku shiso, original enlightenment, he questions whether any search of "original" or "true" Buddhism is a fruitful exercise. see also Why They Say Zen is Not Buddhism: Recent Japanese Critiques of Buddha-Nature by Paul Swanson which summarises Matsumoto and Hakamaya's argument.
Allison A. Goodwin: Right View, Red Rust, and White Bones: A Reexamination of Buddhist Teachings on Female Inferiority
"This article argues that both genders are harmed by negative Buddhist teachings about women and by discriminatory rules that limit their authority, rights, activities, and status within Buddhist institutions...that because such views and practices have been proven to lead to harm, Buddhists should conclude that they are not the True Dharma and should abandon them."
Christopher Hamacher: "Zen Has No Morals!" - The Latent Potential for Corruption and Abuse in
The two cases referred to in the title are the Eido Shimano scandal and the German Zen teacher, Dr. Klaus Zernickow (Sotetsu Yuzen). Hamacher reviews the two cases and then goes on to catagorise eight behaviours he believes indicate problems with teachers and are warning signs for students. see also: Gregory Wonderwheel: A Response to 'Zen Has No Morals' and The Aitken-Shimano Letters by Vladimir K. and Stuart Lachs
Steven Heine:
After the Storm: Matsumoto Shirõ's Transition from "Critical Buddhism" to "Critical Theology" Although nominally a review of Matsumoto Shirō’s Dōgen shisō ron (Studies of Dōgen’s thought)Heine covers much more ground, giving a good outline of the Critical Buddhism debate and history. from Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2001 28/1–2
Role of Repentance--or lack of it--in Zen Monasticism Mysticism, morality and repentance in Zen.
Critical Buddhism the Debate Concerning the 75-fascicle and 12-fascicle Shōbōgenzō Texts Heine evaluates the views of Critical Buddhsim on how the two Shobogenzo texts illuminate Dogen's perspectives on original enlightenment thought in terms of his attitude to causality and karmic retribution. from Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1994 24/1
Hur : The Sõtõ Sect and Japanese Military Imperialism in Korea Hur traces the imperialist and racist history of the Soto sect in Japan between 1905 and the defeat of Japan in WWII in 1945. from Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 1999 26_1⁄2
Stephen Jenkins: Making Merit through Warfare and Torture According to the According to the Ārya-Bodhisattva-gocara-upāyavisaya-vikurvana-nirdeśa Sūtra Jenkins looks at what religious resources Buddhist kings had at their disposal to dispense punishment to wrong-doers — a situation at odds with the pacifist stereotypes of Buddhism. from: Buddhist Warfare
see book review by Vladimir Tikhonov here.
see also:
Michael Zimmerman: Only a Fool Becomes a King: Buddhist Stances on Punishment
Ken W. Jones : The Zen Of Social Action "The importance of anchoring social action and service in a strong and mature monastic tradition cannot...be over–
emphasised. Engaged Buddhism is a 'radical conservatism' in several senses, not least in that the more radical and potentially disturbing the action, the stronger and more conservative does the monastic support need to be."
Stephanie Kaza: Finding Safe Harbor: Buddhist Sexual Ethics in America Kaza looks at the perennial problem of sexuality in sanghas and teachers. She discusses how sanghas have handled this hot issue. A worthy essay for any sangha facing issues of sex among the sangha/teachers. from Buddhist-Christian Studies 24 (2004)
Kubota Ji'un: Apology for What the Founder of the Sanbo Kyodan, Yasutani Haku'un Roshi, Said and Did During World War II: the 3rd abbot of the Sanbô Kyôdan Zen sect offers his apologies. You be the judge.
Ken Knabb: Strong Lessons for Engaged Buddhists : A critique of the so-called "engaged Buddhist" movement. Is it true that "engaged Buddhists' social awareness has remained extremely limited. If they have begun to recognize certain glaring social realities, they show little understanding of their causes or possible solutions"? Following on from this 1993 essay, Knabb returns in 1999 with Evading the Transformation of Reality: Engaged Buddhism at an Impasse, continuing the call for a more radical engagement by Buddhists.
Tibetan Buddhism Enters the 21st Century:
Trouble in Shangri-la: Stuart moves from looking at Zen Buddhism to Tibetan Buddhism. In this paper he outlines some of the abuses of the Tibetan system. "For followers of Tibetan Buddhism in the West at least, the day-to-day results have been the same as that of the Zen sect of Buddhism. In the Tibetan case, students’ absolute submission to the teacher has led to some teachers amassing extravagant wealth, and almost always to wild sexual abuse, arguably even more extreme than in Zen Buddhist communities." (this link will take you off thezensite page)
For Whose Best Interest: Joshu Sasaki (April 1, 1907 – July 27, 2014) was one of the leading Zen teachers in America. But all was not as it seemed. "Sasaki initiated sexual encounters with between 100 and 300 female students.The women, often in their early twenties, were searching for direction and meaning in their lives, naïve about Zen teachings, history and Zen masters while Sasaki was presented as a mature, enlightened Zen master beyond their understanding. "
When the Saints Go Marching In: Modern Day Zen Hagiography: Stuart looks at two biographies of contemporary Zen masters, Sheng Yen and Walter Nowick. Stuart has personal knowledge of both masters and discovered that hagiography is alive and well in modern Zen biographies.
as is Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in Ch'an/Zen Buddhism in America
The Zen Master in America: Dressing the Donkey with Bells and Scarves Lachs looks at the myth of Dharma transmission in the context of American Zen and asks, Does the reality of modern Zen match the traditional view of what a Zen master should be? This is an important essay by Lachs and should be read by all Zen students.
Coming Down from the Zen Clouds A Critique of the Current State of American Zen: this is quite a controversial article dealing with Dharma transmission in Western Zen. Well worth reading,
My own reply to this article is here.
Stuart replies to my critique here.
Richard Baker and the Myth of the Zen Roshi: Lachs continues his criticism of Western Zen. You may not agree with everything Lachs says, but he does make some valid points. All his articles are worth reading and discussing, especially in Western sanghas.
Interview with Stuart Lachs: This lengthy interview was coducted by Non-Duality Magazine on August 26, 2010. Stuart discusses his early days in Zen and then spends quite a bit of time talking about Dharma transmission. An interesting insight into Stuart's thinking.
David Loy:
Can Buddhism Save the World? A Response to Nelson Foster A response to Nelson Foster's essay How Shall We Save the World? from the Buddhist Peace Fellowship
Is Zen Buddhism? Loy looks at the perplexing question of how D T Suzuki and others used Zen to justify killing and war. If Zen is used to sacralize war, can it still be called Buddhism? from The Eastern Buddhist Vol. 28, No. 2 (Autumn 1995)
Koichi Miyata: Critical Comments on Brian Victoria's "Engaged
Buddhism: A Skeleton in the Closet?" Miyata argues that Victoria's claims that Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, founder of Sokka Gakkai, was an active supporter of the Japanese wars of aggression, rest on the highly selective use of quotes, and ignore key interpretative issues associated with Japanese imperial fascism and its underlying belief structures. from Journal of Global Buddhism 3 (2002): 79 - 85
Daniel A. Metraux: A Critical Analysis of Brian Victoria's Perspectives on Modern Japanese Buddhist History Metreaux analyses Brian Victoria's two seminal books, Zen at War, and Zen War Stories from: Journal of Global Buddhism, Vol 5, 2004
Daniel Palmer: Maseo Abe, Zen Buddhism and Social Ethics. Do Zen's ideas of karma, nirvana and sunyata undermine the possibility of social critique by Buddhists? Palmer looks at how Kyoto School philosopher Maseo Abe interpreted these three fundamentals to enable social action by Zennists. Excellent essay.
John Peek: Buddhism, Human Rights and the Japanese State: Peek looks at some core Buddhist teachings and relates them to "the proper nature of political, economic, and societal relationships". An interesting essay justifying political/social Buddhist activism. from Human Rights Quarterly 17.3 (1995)
Mike Port & Kyogen Carlson-Sensei: The Role of Authority in Dharma Practice: two short essays here from Still Point, the publication of the Dharma Rain Zen Center in Portland, Oregon. "The question of authority, particularly in something that sounds as intimidating as the "Master-Disciple relationship," bears very close examination."
Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited After briefly outlining traditional monastic Zen, Sharf looks at modern Zen, including some scathing comments about D.T. Suzuki. from: Rude Awakenings: Zen the Kyoto School, and the Question of Nationalism, James W. Heisig and John C. Maraldo, eds., pp. 40–51. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press
Sanbõkyõdan: Zen and the Way of the New Religions. A discussion of Yasutani's Sanbokyodan sect which "diverges markedly from more traditional models found in Sõtõ, Rinzai, or Õbaku training halls. In fact, the Sanbõkyõdan displays many characteristic traits of the so-called New Religions." Sharf concludes by arguing "that there is an overtly ideological dimension to the rubric of "old" versus "new." From the Japanese Journal of Religious Studies
The Zen of Japanese Nationalism: a long essay covering much of the same material as the two above but in considerably more detail. Essential reading.
On the Buddha-Nature of Insentient Things (or: How to Think about a Ch'an Kung-an) Sharf looks at the Buddha-Nature of Insentient Things philosophy and claims, "not only were Ch'an masters active and passionate participants in this quintessentially discursive controversy, but, as we will see, the BNI doctrine was the immediate context for the most famous kung-an of all, "Chao-chou's dog."
Shaku Sōen: A Buddhist View of War Sōen was D T Suzuki's Zen teacher and perhaps this is where Suzuki got his ideas of Buddhism and war. This brief excerpt comes from Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, translated by D T Suzuki and published in 1906.
Yamada Shoji: The Myth of Zen in the Art of Archery Shoji takes a critical look at Eugen Herrigal's Zen in the Art of Archery. Includes a brief look at Japanese archery and Herrigal's teacher, Awa Kenzo. Herrigel may have totally misunderstood his archery teacher but he did create an enduring myth. from: Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 12/1_2
D. T. Suzuki: A Buddhist View of War: A Buddhist View of War" In this essay Suzuki seems to support the idea of 'holy war'. Written during the Russo-Japanese War (8 February 1904 – 5 September 1905), Suzuki promotes Zen Buddhism as a legitimate path to being a warrior. The essay was published in The Light of Dharma, July, 1904, Vol. 4. No. 2 pp. 179-182. The Light of Dharma was published in English from 1901 to 1907 by the Jōdo Shinshū sect in San Francisco.
Paul Swanson: The What & Why of Critical Buddhism, Part 1; Why They Say Zen is Not Buddhism: Recent Japanese Critiques of Buddha-Nature Swanson discusses the attacks by modern Japanese scholars on the tradition of hongaku shiso, "original enlightenment", and its significance for Japanese society and religion.
Moriya Tomoe: Social Ethics of New Buddhists at the Turn of the Twentieth Century: A comparataive Study of Suzuki Daisetsu and Inoue Shuten. Tomoe looks at two different, prominent Buddhists at the beginning of the 20th Century and how they contructed their Buddhist responses to the rising nationalism of pre-WWI Japan. from Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 32/2, 2005
Gregory Wonderwheel: A Response to 'Zen Has No Morals' Wonderwheel rebuts much of Christopher Hamacher's article, Zen Has No Morals. He questions whether Zen teachings have cultic qualities, as claimed by Hamacher. Read both and make up your own mind.
Thomas Freeman Yarnall: Engaged Buddhism: New and Improved!(?) Made in the U. S. A. of Asian Materials In this very long (nearly 25,000 words) essay Yarnall examines the argument between "modernist" engaged Buddhists who see a discontinuity with historical Buddhism and "traditionalists" who believe socially engaged Buddhism is grounded historically within Buddhism. A long detailed exposition well worth the effort. from Journal of Buddhist Ethics 7(2000)
Michael Zimmerman: Only a Fool Becomes a King:
Brian Daizen Victoria is an academic, historian, educator, author and a priest in the Soto lineage. He has written three influential books, Zen War Stories, Zen at War and Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin as well as numerous articles dealing with Zen Buddhism and its approach to war and violence. Some of his articles are collected here.
book reviews of Victoria's Zen at War
book review of Victorias' Zen War Stories
book review of Victoria's Zen Terror in Prewar Japan
The Rehabilitation of a Japanese Buddhist Heritic: This study looks at the life and death of Soto priest Uchiyamo Gudo (1874-1911) who was convicted and executed for allegedly participating in a 1910 plot to murder a member of the Imperial family. Victoria looks at the consequences of the conviction and subsequent rehabilitation by the Soto sect of Gudo some 82 years later. originally published Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, Vol. 22, November 2022 (pdf)
Is Zen a Terrorist Religion?: Brian Victoria takes up the question whether Zen Buddhism can be considered a religion of terrorism. He looks at three terrorist incidents in Japan in the 1930's and identifies the Zen connection between the three. See also Victoria's book on this subject, Zen Terror in Prewar Japan There are various essays below on a similar topic. originally publisher Journal of the Oxford Center of Buddhist Studies 2021Nationalism: Collective Selves and the Promise of Buddhaland: Victoria explores the question "...what is the relationship, if any, of the Buddhadharma with nationalism? " The article does not definitively answer the question but does offer "...material presented in order that the reader may formulate their own view of this question and, hopefully, find a willingness to explore it further, recognizing just how difficult it is to find a resolution of the relationship between Buddhism and nationalism." source: Buddhistdoor Global.net
Does Buddhism Hold the Instincts for War? : Brian Victoria explores how Buddhism has often been used to justify war and violence. By citing various Buddhists, some famous and some not so, he concludes that these actions suggest, if not prove, that "Buddhism does indeed hold instincts for war." source: Buddhistdoor Global (BDG), May 18, 2022.
Is It Possible for an Entire Sangha to be ‘Defeated’ in the Holy Life? Victoria questions whether Japanese Buddhist 'peace exhibitions' are promoting an end to war or are they just seeing Japan as a victim of war, ignoring the sangha's complicity in supporting military aggression. from: Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2020(19): 103–124Abolish Buddhism and Destroy Shakyamuni! Victoria has written extensively on Japanese Buddhism's support for state-sponsored violence. This essay traces how and why this support arose. source: Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 2019 (17), pp 120-151
Buddhism and Violence: This is a short introductory essay on some of the ways Buddhist writings have been used to justify extreme violence. A good beginning to understand Victoria's work in this field.
source: EngageCounting-the-Cost-of-Buddhist-Syncretism: Victoria looks at how Zen's tolerance of other religions has changed Zen Buddhism, especially in the context of Japanese Zen and its intimate relationship with the Japanese animistic faith of Shinto. from Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2018 (15) 55-77
Zen Terror: Victoria looks at the convicted assassin Nissho Inoue (April 12, 1887 – March 2, 1967) and how he used Zen Buddhism to justify assassinations in Japan in the early 1930's. This is based on his latest book, Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin(2019).
The Emperor's New Clothes: The Buddhist Military Chaplaincy in Imperial Japan and Contemporary America Victoria looks at how the Buddha Dharma is interpreted to allow Buddhist chaplains to engage on the battlefield in both Japan and contemporary American armed forces.
Engaged Buddhism: a Skeleton in the Closet?Victoria continues his probing of Japanese Buddhist masters during WWII, pointing out that some "heros of the faith" were not what they seemed. Specifically, Victoria looks at the Venerable Nichidatsu Fujii, Soka Gakkai founder Tsunesabur‘ Makiguchi and Zen master Haku'un Yasutani.
from Journal of Global Buddhism, Vol 2, 2001Karma, War and Inequality in Twentieth Century Japan Brian Victoria looks at the socio-political role of the belief in karma played in Japan. He examines how karma was used to justify war and social oppression in Japan. from Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 2007
Kemmyō Taira Satō: D. T. Suzuki and the Question of War; Translated in Collaboration with Thomas Kirchner. Brian Victoria's Zen at War (see book reviews here and essay here) created quite a stir in Western Zen circles. One of the criticisms by Kemmyō Satō of Victoria's book is that Satō accuses Victoria of claiming that D. T. Suzuki was a supporter of the Japanese military during WWII. Satō has taken another look at Victoria's sources and comes to quite a different conclusion. This is an important rebuttle of Victoria's accusations about Suzuki. Well worth reading. from The Eastern Buddhist 39/1: 61–120 Also, Gary Snyder and Nelson Foster have written about this in Tricycle.
Brian Victoria replies to his critics who claim he has unfairly catagorized D. T. Suzuki as supporting Japanese militarism: The "Negative Side" of D. T. Suzuki's Relationship to War from: The Eastern Buddhist 41/2: 97–138
Sato offers a rebuttal to Victoria's above article: Brian Victoria and the Question of Scholarship from: The Eastern Buddhist 41/2: 139–166
Brian Victoria continues exploring D. T. Suzuki's wartime writings with Zen as a Cult of Death in the Wartime Writings of D.T. Suzuki from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 30, No. 4, August 5, 2013.
D.T. Suzuki, Zen and the Nazis: This is Part I of a three-part series on Suzuki's relationship with the German Nazis. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 43, No. 4, October 28, 2013
Part II of this series on Suzuki is A Zen Nazi in Wartime Japan: The Formation and Principles of Count Dürckheim’s Worldview and his interpretation of Japanese Spirit and Zen by Karl Baier Baier explains the "spiritual" aspect of Nazism and its relationship to the Japanese spiritual worldview. A very interesting article that helps explain some of the thinking behind the Nazis. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 48, No. 3, December 2, 2013
Part III of the series is A Zen Nazi in Wartime Japan: Count Dürckheim and his Sources—D.T. Suzuki, Yasutani Haku’un and Eugen Herrigel Victoria rounds up the Nazis and discusses Suzuki's relationship with some, especially Count Durckheim, who spent most of the war in Japan. This is the final of the series. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 12, Issue 3, No. 2, January 20, 2013
Japanese Buddhism in the Third Reich: Brian Victoria looks at the Nazi fascination with Zen Buddhism and introduces some of the main players. from Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2014, Vol 7
The Zen of Hitler Jugend: Brian looks at the extraordinary visit of a delegation of Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend) to the head temple of the Soto sect, Daihonzan Eiheiji, for an overnight stay. The article includes photos and a translation of an article on the visit in the temple's periodical, Sansho. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 2, No. 2, January 18, 2015.Victoria looks at Sawaki Kōdō Roshi and his attitude towards war in the first of a two-part series Zen Masters On the Battefield. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 24, No. 3, June 16, 2014.
Sawaki Kōdō, Zen and Wartime Japan: Final Pieces of the Puzzle This is the second part of the above essay. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 13, Issue. 17, No. 2, May 04, 2015
In Part Two of Zen Masters on the Battlefield, Brian Victoria looks at the wartime record of Zen Master Nakajima Genjō (1915-2000)
Violence-Enabling Mechanisms in Buddhism; Victoria looks at how some religious doctrines can be turned around to justify violence. from Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
Sōka Gakkai Founder, Makiguchi Tsunesaburō, A Man of Peace? Brian Victoria looks at the war-time record of Makiguchi Tsunesaburō, founder of the Nichiren sect-affiliated, lay Buddhist organization today known as Sōka Gakkai. from The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 12, Issue 37, No. 3, September 15, 2014
The Buddha Dharma in Japan 70 Years On (Part I) and Part II Brian Victoria in Part I looks at the role of Soka Gakkai in the Asia-Pacific War and in Part II looks at Soto Zen Master Sawaki Kodo’s wartime record and how the Soto sect welcomed Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) to Daihonzan Eiheiji.
An Ethical Critique of Wartime Zen: "This article explores the ethical implications of those numerous Japanese Zen masters who so strongly and unconditionally supported Japanese aggression during the Asia-Pacific War (1937-45) and before." Victoria also questions whether "... the Zen school, at least during wartime, may have forfeited its right to be considered a legitimate part of Buddhism." original source: Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, Vol. 9
Brian Victoria has engaged in a discussion of his work at the Sweeping Zen site. Below are some links to this discussion with comments from readers.
The “Non-Self” as a Killer
An Article Concerning “D. T. Suzuki and the Nazis”
D.T. Suzuki and the (Dis) Unity of Zen and the Sword
Brian Victoria’s War on Zen
The End of a (Zen) Buddhist Myth
Jundo Cohen has engaged Brian Victoria in a vigorous debate at Sweeping Zen. Here are some of his postings.
“Zen At War” Author Brian Victoria's War On ZeN – by Jundo Cohen
“Zen at War” Brian Victoria: Throwing Bombs at Kodo– by Jundo Cohen a longer version of this article is available here.
